Fire service administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Fire service administration - Essay Example They quickly alerted the teacher who was around who lined all students to vacate the building. As the teacher to make her way out of the class to access the avenue that led to the exit, the smoked was more intense and hence, she was forced to sit back in the class with the students to wait for help. The fire ignited fiercely and more time passed before the school alarm rang (McBride, 1979) At this time, a window was shattered at the staircase’s foot from the intense ignition providing the fire with oxygen. The heat also lit a roll of building paper that along with the oil based waxes triggered the oily, thick dark smoke that led to deaths from the smoke inhalation. The staircase made of wood also got ignited. Just around the same time the janitor noticed the fire and alerted the housekeepers to alert the department of fire. For 330 children and 6 teachers, the remaining outlet was jumping from the second floors or wait for the rescue team to arrive. Noticing the fix they were in, they teachers encouraged the students to sit at their lockers and pray. The intense flames, heat and smoke pushed them towards the windows. One of the teachers suggested that the students should stuff furniture at the door front that slowed the smoke till the rescue team arrived. Out of all the students, 8 got injured, and 2 died. One died out of roof collapse. The other died in the ho spital out of injuries (John K, 2008) What triggered the fire could not be established. A student of 5th grade during the time of ignition confessed to have set the place ablaze and then withdrew the confession. He feared telling this to the parents than to the authorities. He also said that he had been setting a series of fire in apartment buildings in the neighborhood. On that day, the boy had been excused to go the washrooms at 2pm. At this time is when the ignition started in the bin. Succeeding the incident, investigation established

DETAILED COMPARISON BETWEEN ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM Essay

DETAILED COMPARISON BETWEEN ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM - Essay Example A good consequence is determined in terms of pleasure or happiness (both intrinsic and instrumental), according to Bentham. So, his concept can also be termed as â€Å"hedonic utilitarianism† since he experimented logically that we look for pleasure (hedonism) and avert pain, assuming that both pleasure and pain hold an impact on our decisions, although we are conscious of right or wrong and cause or effect. Two forms of utilitarianism, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism are in conflict with each other. Act utilitarianism, being a results-oriented theory, supports consequentialism, assuming right or wrong on the basis of outcomes. Instead, rule utilitarianism, being an idealistic and inflexible theory, is based on rules involving conduct and related principles. Believers of rule utilitarianism don’t violate the rules, approved by mainstream. Act Utilitarian upholds that the principle of utility must be employed in all individual situations, whenever possible. Bentham indicates that most vital attributes to determine what is moral are pleasure and pain. The practicality of an action decides its rightness or wrongness, bringing about the utmost good from countless evolving outcomes. For instance, if you are in a state where you consider lying to be a supreme good, at that point, you should lie. If infringement of law leads towards ultimate good of a particular act, then that act would be correct to adhere to. Likewise, Act Utilitarianism allows for flexibility, considering individual situations and identifying the right action strategy to produce extreme happiness. Conversely, Rule Utilitarianism, associated with John Stuart Mill, concentrates on common rules that each person must obey to lead towards the greatest community benefit. Unlike Act Utilitarianism, Rule Utilitarianism institutes the best rules, followed by the whole community, though it doesn’t head

Racism affects everybody Essay Example for Free

Racism affects everybody Essay This is shown in the movie ‘Australia’, how everyone can be affected by racism. Many different ways of racism towards people in the movie ‘Australia’. A few of the main characters that are affected in the movie is Nullah, The Drover, Lady Ashley. The people that are being most affected in the movie would have to be the indigenous, that’s because the time the movie was set in, was when the white australia policy was happening, so pretty much every Australian was being racist towards aboriginal people. Racism is problem that everybody is affected in the world today. In the movie Australia, all the aboriginal people was being well behaved, did everything they was told and followed the rules. Even then people was still be racist towards them. Some of the ways racism was shown in the movie was how the aboriginals wasn’t allowed in the pubs, also Neil Fletcher was using Daisy for sex and didn’t show any respect and also beat her and his son up. So pretty much all the Australians in this time period was against all indigenous people and all japanese because at the time australia was at war with japan and japan ended up bombing darwin. Nullah in the movie was a half cast, so he wasn’t fully aboriginal or australian, he felt left out because he wasn’t black or white, he was only a creamy colour. He was like this because of Neil Fletcher using his mother for sex. Nullah and his mother wasn’t treated with any respect at all and both of them was also beat up, it was because Neil fletcher played a big part in being racist towards Indigenous people. A good example of racism towards Nullah is when he is about to get on the ship to the mission and a young australian boy was yelling to him and saying â€Å"Creamy† and kept saying that to Nullah. Near the end of the movie Nullah wants to go ‘walk about’ with his Grandfather. If you go on this ‘walk about’ It means you become a man, it’s part of the aboriginal tradition, even though Nullah isn’t a full blooded aboriginal, he still wants to keep live by his aboriginal culture and follow the aboriginal tradition and become a man through the true aboriginal way. The reason all this racism was happening towards the aboriginal people was because of the government. They had made a policy in the australia called the white australia policy, this policy wanted australia to only have fully white blooded australians in australia only. The half cast kids like ‘Nullah’ was sent to a mission to learn about the christianity and how australians live, the other reason they were sent there is because australian people wasn’t proud of having sex with aboriginal women and then they didn’t want half cast kids in the public because it would remind them of what they did with those aboriginal women and they didn’t want that. So the government made missions where, the half cast kids were taken from their families by the police and wasn’t allowed to see their families again. The kids that were taken when they were are now called the stolen generation. The two people in the movie that werent being racist towards aboriginal people was The Drover and Lady Ashley, this was because they both had a connection with the aboriginal people in the movie, The Drover’s partner in the movie was an aboriginal and The Drover felt like he was an aboriginal and thought that people treated him like one. He also sticked up for his partner at the pub, this shows how close Drover was to his partner. Lady was close to aboriginal people because of Nullah’s mother dying and she took up mothering for Nullah, this made a strong connection between them. When Neil Fletcher was beating up Nullah Lady Ashley stepped in and protected Nullah. In conclusion, It doesn’t matter if someone is being racist towards an individual, it will affect other people to. Even all the years ago, when the white australia policy was taking place, the racism towards the aboriginals and the stolen generation, It is still affecting most of Australia today and a lot of people are sorry to the stolen generation because what the government did was very wrong and it didn’t take not long to see what they done. Racism still happens today everywhere and it does affect everyone.

HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry

HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale Findings show extensive existing research in the field of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and how they might benefit an organisations business performance. Academics suggest that there is a series or bundle of human resource (HR) practices which are of great benefit to an organisation, for example, selection and recruitment, training and development, without giving any consideration to other contingency factors, such as the size, structure or varying labour markets of an organisation (Pfeffer, 1994a; 1998b; Huselid, 1995 cited in Gonzalez and Tacorante, 2004). This is known as the best practice approach to HRM. There is also a different contingent approach, known as the best-fit approach, which is dependent upon the organisations strategic focus, suggesting that it is more beneficial for an organisation to use HR practices which are more aligned with its strategies and external environment (Legge in Storey, 2001). These two approaches will be discussed in more detail in Cha pter 2. Although the literature in the field of HRM shows a positive correlation between employee perceptions of HRM fairness and employee acceptance and satisfaction with HRM decisions (Bowen et al., 1999), there is a gap in the research when it comes to a direct link between HRM and staff turnover and more research is needed to support an assertion that good HRM within an organisation leads to a greater retention of front office staff. Although the hospitality industry has experienced almost continuous growth since the 1900s, poor staff retention has always been a problem in the industry. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (2009) state that the highest levels of labour turnover are found in the service sector and in the hotel and catering industry in particular (www.cipd.co.uk, 2009). Research points to various reasons for this such as lack of training, development and career opportunities. The term front office refers to organisations departments which come into contact with their customers such as the reception area of a hotel, which might consist of a receptionist, reception supervisor and perhaps a revenue or finance manager in some smaller establishments. It is the authors own experience, from working in the hotel industry, that many front office employees possess certain characteristics which render them more susceptible to a high level of turnover and examples of these will be discussed below. In addition, the author has found that front office employees generally do not receive the same HR configuration as some of their counterparts. For these reasons, the author has seen fit to investigate further the extent to which poor HRM practices affect turnover for front office staff in the hospitality industry. 1.2 Aim The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate two of the main problems in the hospitality industry: poor HRM practices and high staff turnover and the existence of a direct link between these working on the hypothesis that sound HRM practices should significantly reduce staff turnover. 1.3 Objectives To critically review current HRM practices in the hospitality industry, looking specifically at selection and recruitment and training and development, which are seen to have the greatest impact on staff turnover, highlighting the reasons why poor HRM practices might affect staff retention. To provide a definition of staff turnover and discuss the main causes of high staff turnover within the hospitality industry. To investigate the characteristics of front office staff, looking closely at the work of Lepack and Snell (1999a; 2002b) regarding Human Resource Architecture, with the aim of showing that front office staff receive a different HR configuration to other employees who might be seen as more important to an organisation. 1.4 Methodology Research is briefly defined as a form of systematic enquiry that contributes to knowledge (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:1) and in the case of this dissertation was used to identify new and better ways of managing within the hospitality industry. After reflecting on experience the author decided to investigate further the area of HRM practices and staff turnover, once the research area was decided the author then had to choose the research method which best suited the research question. Saunders suggests that most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary research (Saunders et al., 2003:189). However, the author of this dissertation takes the view that that there is sufficient secondary data available to achieve the aims and objectives stated above and it is therefore based solely on secondary research drawing on existing sources alone. Work by academics in the area of HRM, for example, Lashley (1998); Boxall (2008); Hoque (2000); Purcell (2001a; 2008b); Torrington, Hall and Taylor (1991); Mullins (1998); Lucas (2004); Armstrong (1987a; 1992b; 2000c); Storey (1992a; 1995b; 2001c); and Guest (1987a; 1989b) will be analysed to provide a base to the theory of HRM. Data from government sources, for example, People1st, will be used as further evidence to back up the authors findings. The main advantage of secondary research is that it saves time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaugh, 2002). Secondary data can be obtained much more quickly than primary data and time is the only cost incurred. Secondary data facilitates the analysis of larger data sets, such as those collected by government surveys (Saunders et al, 2003). It is readily available and generally of proven reliability. Stewart and Kimes (1993) suggest that the quality of data in secondary research is likely to be far superior to that obtained through primary research as secondary data is permanent and more open to public scrutiny. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research (Stewart et al., 1993:1). However, it is important to recognise that secondary data does have a number of disadvantages. It may well have been collected for a specific purpose differing, either substantively or in emphasis, from the research question and this dissertations objectives. It might also reflect the attitudes of those collecting it rather than offer an objective picture of reality (Saunders et al., 2003:203). In addition, the secondary data may be outdated. Wrenn et al (2007) suggest that old information may not necessarily be bad information, but that up-to-date information is an absolute necessity (Wrenn et al., 2007:73). The author has attempted to overcome weaknesses of the secondary research method by using secondary data that is both current and closely related in emphasis to this dissertations title, aim and objectives. As the author aimed to analyse a large data set instead of concentrating on a smaller sample, for example, one organisation in particular, it was decided that secondary research would be more appropriate for this type of study. 1.5 Structure Chapter 2 reviews the literature on HRM history, approaches, theories, strategies and practices. Views of prominent academics in the field of HRM are summarised, critically analysed and evaluated. Chapter 3 defines the different types of staff turnover which occur within an organisation, identifying drivers and costs associated with high staff turnover. Characteristics of the hospitality industry, which may make it particularly vulnerable to poor staff retention, are identified. Chapter 4 reviews some of the key HRM practices being used in the hotel industry, focusing on selection and recruitment methods and training and development techniques, explaining how they affect staff turnover. Red Carnation Hotels are used as an example to show the impact the implementation of an effective training programme has on levels of employee turnover. Chapter 5 investigates Lepack and Snells (1999a; 2002b) work on Human Resource Architecture, showing that staff turnover levels in different departments might be attributable to different HR configurations. Chapter 6 concludes that good HRM practices can greatly reduce staff turnover and recommendations for improved staff turnover are made. CHAPTER 2 THE THEORY BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOME KEY PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on HRM theory, providing a brief overview of HRMs history and its similarities with personnel management. The hard and soft approaches to HRM are compared and contrasted, as are the best fit and best practice strategies. 2.2 Human Resource Management HRM is a management strategy which aims positively to influence individual ability and motivation and afford employees the opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities. (Blumberg and Pringle, 1982; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager, 1993 cited in Boxall and Purcell, 2008). Whilst Boella and Goss-Turner (2005) attempt to define HRM simply as a strategic management function aimed at determining and achieving managerial goals, Storey (2001) provides the clearest definition of HRM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey 2001:6) HRM emerged as a new concept in the 1980s in the USA, promoted by such academics as Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and Walton (1984) from the Harvard School and other influential writers who argued in favour of a more comprehensive and strategic approach to an organisations workforce (Armstrong, 1992). It quickly spread to the UK. Bratton and Gold (2003) state that HRM assumed new prominence due to concerns about global competition, the internationalization of technology and the productivity of labour (Bratton and Gold, 2003:4), all of which required managers to change the way in which organisations used their human resources and managed the employment relationship. The increased influence of trade unions and the continued growth of organisations in general, led to greater importance being placed on the personnel function of management. Prompted by economic trends and views of influential writers at the time, such as Pascale and Athos (1981), Peters and Waterman (1982), Kanter (1984) and Porter (1985), along with those from the Harvard School, chief executives began to realise that to gain, and retain, competitive advantage, human resources must be properly managed. Cuming (1993) suggests that employees are in fact the most important resource available to an organisation if organisational success is to be achieved. HRM enables an organisation to achieve goals through its workforce, whilst integrating human resource policies and business plans. Effective HRM should create a working environment in which all employees can be utilised to their full capacity and potential. It plays an important role in building the capabilities of a workforce and improving the general climate of employee attitudes (Boxall and Purcell, 2008) and aims to ensure commitment from individuals in order to achieve success for the organisation (Guest 1987). Academics have conflicting views on the meaning of HRM, some doubting its existence altogether. Fowler (1987), for example, believes that HRM is nothing more than a construct largely invented by academics and popularised by consultants (Fowler 1987 cited in Armstrong, 1999:586), while Woods (1999) claims that HRM is a paradox which has never really been mastered. Many academics are unable to make a clear distinction between HRM and personnel management (Armstrong, 1987; Sisson and Bach, 1989a; 1994b, 2000c; Legge, 1995; Torrington and Hall, 1998), while others are able to easily identify differences between them. The best way to conceptualise them, however, is as a continuum with personnel management at one end and HRM at the other (Wilson, 2001:47). Their differences and similarities can be found summarised in Table 1. 2.3 Hard and Soft HRM There are two approaches to HRM, each of which aims to provide an organisation with a competitive advantage. Storey (1992) and Guest (1987) were the first writers to make the distinction suggesting that the emphasis could either be on human or resources. In the UK, the two approaches are known as hard and soft HRM. The hard approach to HRM stresses the need for business orientated style, with an emphasis on productivity, efficiency in the utilisation of human resources and the achievement of business goals (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005:23). Nickson (2007) describes the hard approach as instrumental and economically rational (Nickson 2007:9), aiming to gain a competitive advantage whilst keeping labour costs to a minimum. Armstrong (1992) suggests that the hard approach to HRM treats employees like any other resource, for instance land or capital, to be used as managers see fit. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that employees will be treated badly. Marchington and Wilkinson (2002) suggest that if labour is in short supply or is central to the achievement of organisational goals, employees may be treated well. For the hard approach to be most effective, the staffing structure of an organisation must mirror its needs. It is essential that an organisation has the right number of staff in the right place at the right time (Wilson, 2005). The HRM practice of human resource planning is therefore crucial (Mullins, 1998). The alternative approach, soft HRM, stresses the human aspects of HRM (Price, 2007) focussing particularly on communication and motivation. Training and development programmes as well as commitment strategies are used with the aim of producing highly skilled employees in order to gain a competitive advantage (Bratton and Gold, 2003). A soft HRM approach puts staff at the centre of determining and realising strategic objectives and staff are led rather than managed to achieve organisational success. Storey (1992) states that Soft HRM sees employees as a valuable resource whose competencies, skills and attitudes are to be appropriately nurtured (Storey, 1992:28). The organisation and its workforce work together towards a competitive advantage, the organisation aiming to improve the quality of its staff in the hope that it will reap the rewards of their development. The soft approach is based on the premise that if employees feel they have been treated well, they will do all they can to achieve organisational goals. Although some authors, for example Sisson (1994), argue that organisations claiming to use a soft HRM approach may just be using the language to disguise what is actually a hard approach, similarities have been drawn between a soft HRM approach and personnel management, as organisations use employees to achieve a competitive advantage through developing their skills and loyalty. 2.4 The best practice or best fit approach to HRM There are two fundamental HR strategies which are used to ensure that the effects of HR practices are maximised. The best practice approach is generally agreed to comprise a list of tangible practices, with best practice HRM or bundles of practices having the greatest impact on performance (Pfeffer,1994a; 1998b; Huselid,1995; Wood, 1995; Patterson et al, 1998; Guest, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Best practice approach is based on the assumption that there is a set of best HRM practices and that adopting them will inevitably lead to superior organisational performance. (Armstrong 2000:135) The best fit model on the other hand is based on the principle that HR strategy will be more effective when appropriately integrated within the specific firm and environmental context (Boxall and Purcell, 2001) Writers suggest that there is a bundle of practices essential to the HR effective strategy of any organisation. These include practices discussed in more detail below, such as selection and recruitment, and training and development. Others may be more marginal as they do not necessarily have general application, for instance, family friendly policies, profit related pay and share ownership (Guest, 2001; Torrington et al, 1999a; 2002b; 2005c). The importance of deploying these practices in the correct manner must, however, be stressed. Simply employing them without the correct management may have a negative effect on an organisation and its retention of human resources. Critics of the best practice strategy argue that, as organisations vary in size, compete in different labour markets and have varying market strategies, what works for one organisation might not necessarily work as well for another. Organisations work systems are highly idiosyncratic (Becker et al, 1997 cited in Ingham, 2007:78) with optimum results only being achieved if practices are tailored carefully to each individual situation. Larger organisations, for instance, are more likely than smaller entities to adopt more sophisticated staffing and training procedures and to have a more structured workforce with more specialised jobs and defined career hierarchies. They inevitably require therefore more formalised HR practices to facilitate the management of larger numbers (Schuler and Jackson 1995). The concept of fit between business and HR policy is based on the assumption that if HRM is more contingent with the external environment and an organisations business strategy, it will lead to higher performance and competitive advantage (Legge cited in Storey, 2001). The best fit approach ensures that HR strategies are aligned with the culture and operational process of an organisation as well as the external environment. Armstrong suggests that this is one of the most important aims in a development programme (Armstrong 2000:132). 2.5 HRM practices Recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer 1992; Woods and Mcaulay 1989; Wagner 1991; Wheelhouse 1989) and training and development opportunities (Hogan 1992; Himestra 1990; Conrade et al., 1994) have been identified as having the biggest impact on staff turnover and are explored in detail in Chapter 4. Mullins (1995) recognises that the aim of any organisation must be to select the best available staff in the first place, train and develop them and to retain them for a reasonable period of time (Mullins 1995:183). Through the use of various intervention processes, for example, recruitment and selection and training and development, an organisation can influence turnover (Mullins, 1995 cited Cheng and Brown, 1998:138). This is consistent with literature which suggests that the use of high performance work practices, including recruitment and selection procedures and training, are associated with lower labour turnover, greater productivity and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995:635) However, before exploring recruitment and selection and training and development further it is important to mention some of the other key HRM practices used in the hospitality industry. HRM practices should cover five main areas: Staffing and recruitment; making sure that available jobs within an organisation are filled appropriately by staff with the required knowledge, experience, abilities and skills, whilst also deploying an effective retention programme. Rewards; carrying out regular appraisals and making sure that reward systems are in place as well as that staff benefit for achieving organisational goals. Employee development; ensuring that employees have the correct amount of training to enable them to do their job to the best of their abilities whilst enabling them to reach their full potential. Employee maintenance and job security; making sure that employees are working in a safe environment as well as offering support where redundancies are necessary. (Bratton and Gold, 1999; Mullins, 1998; Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas 2004) It is also suggested that HRM practices should include team working, employee involvement, liaisons with outside bodies (ACAS, HCTC and HCIMA), maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions (Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2004, Mullins, 1998). 2.6 Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is an important element of HRM in all organisations regardless of size, structure or sector (Marchington et al., 2005) and is critical to the long-term success of every hospitality business (Hayes et al., 2009). In terms of the hotel industry, Kelliher and Johnson (1987, 1997) have suggested that recruitment is, in fact, HRMs central function. Recruitment is the process of identifying candidates for current or future position vacancies. It is Those practices and activities carried out by the organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees (Barber, 1998:5 cited in Purcell et al., 2007:273; Hayes et al 2009:44). Selection is the process of choosing an individual for a current or future position vacancy (Hayes et al., 2009:44). Selection pares down the number of applicants while recruitment makes the paring down possible by producing the pool of candidates from whom new employees will be selected. However Recruitment and selection is generally viewed as an integrated function (Mullins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b) and is considered as such in this dissertation. The recruitment and selection process is the first point of contact for potential employees, who will tend to judge the organisation as a whole by the manner in which it is conducted, as well as the first stage in the HRM value chain. This leads some specialists to the view that: effective recruitment is likely to be the most critical human resource function for organisational success and survival (Taylor and Collins, 2000:304 cited in Boxall et al., 2007:273). Managers must address a number of questions before they begin the recruitment and selection process for it to have the desired effect, particularly whom to target, where, how (web, newspapers, job fairs) and when and what message to communicate (Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh and Stake, 2000 cited in Boxall et al, 2007:274). Literature suggests that recruitment and selection techniques have progressed from purely traditional techniques (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking) towards more strategic approaches (networking, internal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection) (Nankarvis and Debrah, 1995; Nankarvis, 1993b). There has also been an increase in recruiting through informal methods (word-of-mouth networks, recruit a relative or friend incentives, keep warm contacts with past employees and speculative applicants). Evidence suggests that such incentives strengthen job satisfaction for both recruiter and recruited (Purcell and Rowley, 2001:183), which in turn reduces staff turnover. There are a number of potential implications of poor selection decisions: Managers may have to waste time on disciplinary procedures or retraining poor performers as well as recruiting replacements for those leaving the job soon after commencing employment. These processes are both expensive and time-consuming, possibly diverting managers from other tasks. Poor recruitment and selection techniques do not only lead to under-qualified staff being employed. Some may be over-qualified and decide to leave soon after starting the job (Marchington et al., 2005). 2.7 Training and Development Training and Development is another key HRM practice which, if performed effectively, can reduce staff turnover within an organisation. Pepper (1984) defines training as the organized process concerned with the acquisition of capability or the maintenance of capability (Pepper, 1984:9-11 cited in Wilson, 1999:118). It is also viewed as a service provided by an organisation for its internal customers- its employees (Lovelock, 1989 cited in Chiang et al, 2005:101). Wexley and Latham (1991) introduce development into their definition suggesting that training and development is a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley and Latham, 1991:3). Development can relate to future requirements, such as preparation for promotion, whilst training generally relates to the here and now. For the purposes of this dissertation, however, the two terms are considered synonymous. Training strategies can include the employment of skilled trainers and use of training manuals or videos as support tools. Training can be hands-on or may take the form of classroom training. In some cases, the two strategies may be used together with feedback being provided through evaluation and appraisals (Chiang, 2005:101). Training may be either formal and take place outside the organisation or informal, on the job, where observation and instruction occurs on site (Jones, 2004:127). An effective training plan requires a good training site, a qualified trainer with clear objectives and methods as well as the necessary training tools and an evaluation strategy (Tanke, 1990). Paynes (2004) suggests that the aim of any training plan must be to ensure that staff have the required knowledge, skills, abilities and characteristics to confront new challenges 2.8 Conclusion HRM has been defined and the conflicting views have been discussed as have the different approaches and strategies used in order to provide an overview of the topic of HRM. An overview of the key HRM practices has also been provided and those most relevant to the hospitality industry have been split into key areas. Although selection and recruitment and training and development are suggested to have the greatest impact on employee turnover, the literature suggests that other key HRM practices, such as reward schemes, employee maintenance, liaisons with outside bodies, maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions, may also have a significant effect (Bratton and Gold 1999, Mullins 1998, Redman and Mathews 1998 and Lashley 1998). CHAPTER 3 STAFF TURNOVER 3.1 Introduction This Chapter explores the concept of staff turnover. Staff turnover is defined and a measure used to calculate turnover levels is discussed, along with its limitations. The characteristics of the Hospitality Industry are identified to show the extent to which they might make the industry more vulnerable to high staff turnover and turnover figures will be provided to support any assumptions that have been made. Some of the main reasons for high staff turnover in the industry will be considered looking in particular at some of the relevant push and pull factors. The cost and benefits of staff turnover will be weighed up to demonstrate the real need for the proper deployment of some of the HRM practices discussed in Chapter 2. 3.2 Definition of Staff Turnover The Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF) defines staff turnover as, the number of people leaving their job in a year as a percentage of the people employed in the industry (Hospitality Training Foundation, 1998 cited in Boella, 2005:178). Generally, turnover is measured over the financial year and is a measure of separations from an employing organisation. Organisations can use the following formula to calculate turnover rate in each department. Number of employees who left during the period X 100 Average number employed during the period Analysis of the turnover rate allows organisations not only to see whether they generally have a problem of high turnover but also to compare the rates of turnover between departments and to target workforce planning strategies accordingly. The calculation above is simple and is a broad indicator but it does have limitations. It does not reflect length of service of employees or whether or not the employer employs a few people at a high rate of pay or many people at a low rate of pay (Boella et al., 2000a; 2005b). The calculation also includes unavoidable turnover, for example, staff leaving due to illness, death or relocation and it may be beneficial to an organisation to create a measure which only measures avoidable turnover (Phillips, 2005). There are four types of turnover which occur within an organisation: voluntary; involuntary; functional and dysfunctional. The differences between them are summarised in Table 2. 3.3 Labour turnover in the Hospitality Industry Over the last 30 years the hospitality leisure and tourism sector has enjoyed a sustained period of growth and now accounts for nearly 5% of the UKs total economic output, employing 2 million people, 1/14 jobs in the UK. Labour turnover across the sector is the highest of all sectors of the economy, rising from 30% in 2005 to 31% in 2008 with recruitment and development of new staff costing an estimated  £414 million in 2008/2009 (Wisdom, 2009). A minority of employees in the hospitality industry are drawn from the primary labour market and as such are generally committed to the industry and sometimes to a particular sector within it. Riley (1996) estimates that 6% of jobs in the hospitality industry are managerial positions, 8% supervisory and 22% craft (Riley, 1996 cited in Kusluvan, 2003). The industry relies heavily, however, on the secondary labour market, which is made up of workers with skills which can be used across a number of industries, for example, secretaries, administrators and maintenance workers. Secondary labour markets do however approximate pretty closely in their characteristics to much of what happens in the industry in terms of the behaviour of employees and their treatment by employers (Goldsmith et al, 1997:16). Boella et al., (2005) suggests that these employees generally attach more importance to a geographical area rather than a career and choose to work in the industry purely to earn a living. The hospitality industry is particularly susceptible to high labour turnover because it is labour intensive and its pattern of staffing is characterised by high mobility, seasonal and part time work, with a high proportion of unskilled, young, part-time and casual staff. The proper use of HRM practices is therefore of great importance to the industry. 3.4 Reasons for staff turnover The greatest numbers of employees leave in the early days of employment, the period in which relationships have not yet developed. Mullins (1998) refers to such turnover as the induction crisis and suggests that it is particularly disruptive and costly. This early turnover is generally the result of improper selection systems, ineffective orientation and inadequate socialization process to adopt employees to the organisation (Phillips, 2005:185). As Torrington et al., (2005) point out, some departures from an organisation are unavoidable, for instance because of relocation, illness or the need to juggle work and family life. According to Lashley and Lincoln (2003), however, high labour turnover is usually due to avoidable causes, such as dissatisfaction with wages, the relationship with other staff or poor working hours, the majority of which can be addressed by effective management. Two broad categories influence staff turnover: work-related attitudes (push factors) and external environmental factors (pull factors) (McBey et al., 2001). Push factors are issues arising within an organisation, including uneven work patterns, poor pay, pe HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale Findings show extensive existing research in the field of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and how they might benefit an organisations business performance. Academics suggest that there is a series or bundle of human resource (HR) practices which are of great benefit to an organisation, for example, selection and recruitment, training and development, without giving any consideration to other contingency factors, such as the size, structure or varying labour markets of an organisation (Pfeffer, 1994a; 1998b; Huselid, 1995 cited in Gonzalez and Tacorante, 2004). This is known as the best practice approach to HRM. There is also a different contingent approach, known as the best-fit approach, which is dependent upon the organisations strategic focus, suggesting that it is more beneficial for an organisation to use HR practices which are more aligned with its strategies and external environment (Legge in Storey, 2001). These two approaches will be discussed in more detail in Cha pter 2. Although the literature in the field of HRM shows a positive correlation between employee perceptions of HRM fairness and employee acceptance and satisfaction with HRM decisions (Bowen et al., 1999), there is a gap in the research when it comes to a direct link between HRM and staff turnover and more research is needed to support an assertion that good HRM within an organisation leads to a greater retention of front office staff. Although the hospitality industry has experienced almost continuous growth since the 1900s, poor staff retention has always been a problem in the industry. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (2009) state that the highest levels of labour turnover are found in the service sector and in the hotel and catering industry in particular (www.cipd.co.uk, 2009). Research points to various reasons for this such as lack of training, development and career opportunities. The term front office refers to organisations departments which come into contact with their customers such as the reception area of a hotel, which might consist of a receptionist, reception supervisor and perhaps a revenue or finance manager in some smaller establishments. It is the authors own experience, from working in the hotel industry, that many front office employees possess certain characteristics which render them more susceptible to a high level of turnover and examples of these will be discussed below. In addition, the author has found that front office employees generally do not receive the same HR configuration as some of their counterparts. For these reasons, the author has seen fit to investigate further the extent to which poor HRM practices affect turnover for front office staff in the hospitality industry. 1.2 Aim The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate two of the main problems in the hospitality industry: poor HRM practices and high staff turnover and the existence of a direct link between these working on the hypothesis that sound HRM practices should significantly reduce staff turnover. 1.3 Objectives To critically review current HRM practices in the hospitality industry, looking specifically at selection and recruitment and training and development, which are seen to have the greatest impact on staff turnover, highlighting the reasons why poor HRM practices might affect staff retention. To provide a definition of staff turnover and discuss the main causes of high staff turnover within the hospitality industry. To investigate the characteristics of front office staff, looking closely at the work of Lepack and Snell (1999a; 2002b) regarding Human Resource Architecture, with the aim of showing that front office staff receive a different HR configuration to other employees who might be seen as more important to an organisation. 1.4 Methodology Research is briefly defined as a form of systematic enquiry that contributes to knowledge (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:1) and in the case of this dissertation was used to identify new and better ways of managing within the hospitality industry. After reflecting on experience the author decided to investigate further the area of HRM practices and staff turnover, once the research area was decided the author then had to choose the research method which best suited the research question. Saunders suggests that most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary research (Saunders et al., 2003:189). However, the author of this dissertation takes the view that that there is sufficient secondary data available to achieve the aims and objectives stated above and it is therefore based solely on secondary research drawing on existing sources alone. Work by academics in the area of HRM, for example, Lashley (1998); Boxall (2008); Hoque (2000); Purcell (2001a; 2008b); Torrington, Hall and Taylor (1991); Mullins (1998); Lucas (2004); Armstrong (1987a; 1992b; 2000c); Storey (1992a; 1995b; 2001c); and Guest (1987a; 1989b) will be analysed to provide a base to the theory of HRM. Data from government sources, for example, People1st, will be used as further evidence to back up the authors findings. The main advantage of secondary research is that it saves time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaugh, 2002). Secondary data can be obtained much more quickly than primary data and time is the only cost incurred. Secondary data facilitates the analysis of larger data sets, such as those collected by government surveys (Saunders et al, 2003). It is readily available and generally of proven reliability. Stewart and Kimes (1993) suggest that the quality of data in secondary research is likely to be far superior to that obtained through primary research as secondary data is permanent and more open to public scrutiny. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research (Stewart et al., 1993:1). However, it is important to recognise that secondary data does have a number of disadvantages. It may well have been collected for a specific purpose differing, either substantively or in emphasis, from the research question and this dissertations objectives. It might also reflect the attitudes of those collecting it rather than offer an objective picture of reality (Saunders et al., 2003:203). In addition, the secondary data may be outdated. Wrenn et al (2007) suggest that old information may not necessarily be bad information, but that up-to-date information is an absolute necessity (Wrenn et al., 2007:73). The author has attempted to overcome weaknesses of the secondary research method by using secondary data that is both current and closely related in emphasis to this dissertations title, aim and objectives. As the author aimed to analyse a large data set instead of concentrating on a smaller sample, for example, one organisation in particular, it was decided that secondary research would be more appropriate for this type of study. 1.5 Structure Chapter 2 reviews the literature on HRM history, approaches, theories, strategies and practices. Views of prominent academics in the field of HRM are summarised, critically analysed and evaluated. Chapter 3 defines the different types of staff turnover which occur within an organisation, identifying drivers and costs associated with high staff turnover. Characteristics of the hospitality industry, which may make it particularly vulnerable to poor staff retention, are identified. Chapter 4 reviews some of the key HRM practices being used in the hotel industry, focusing on selection and recruitment methods and training and development techniques, explaining how they affect staff turnover. Red Carnation Hotels are used as an example to show the impact the implementation of an effective training programme has on levels of employee turnover. Chapter 5 investigates Lepack and Snells (1999a; 2002b) work on Human Resource Architecture, showing that staff turnover levels in different departments might be attributable to different HR configurations. Chapter 6 concludes that good HRM practices can greatly reduce staff turnover and recommendations for improved staff turnover are made. CHAPTER 2 THE THEORY BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOME KEY PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on HRM theory, providing a brief overview of HRMs history and its similarities with personnel management. The hard and soft approaches to HRM are compared and contrasted, as are the best fit and best practice strategies. 2.2 Human Resource Management HRM is a management strategy which aims positively to influence individual ability and motivation and afford employees the opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities. (Blumberg and Pringle, 1982; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager, 1993 cited in Boxall and Purcell, 2008). Whilst Boella and Goss-Turner (2005) attempt to define HRM simply as a strategic management function aimed at determining and achieving managerial goals, Storey (2001) provides the clearest definition of HRM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey 2001:6) HRM emerged as a new concept in the 1980s in the USA, promoted by such academics as Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and Walton (1984) from the Harvard School and other influential writers who argued in favour of a more comprehensive and strategic approach to an organisations workforce (Armstrong, 1992). It quickly spread to the UK. Bratton and Gold (2003) state that HRM assumed new prominence due to concerns about global competition, the internationalization of technology and the productivity of labour (Bratton and Gold, 2003:4), all of which required managers to change the way in which organisations used their human resources and managed the employment relationship. The increased influence of trade unions and the continued growth of organisations in general, led to greater importance being placed on the personnel function of management. Prompted by economic trends and views of influential writers at the time, such as Pascale and Athos (1981), Peters and Waterman (1982), Kanter (1984) and Porter (1985), along with those from the Harvard School, chief executives began to realise that to gain, and retain, competitive advantage, human resources must be properly managed. Cuming (1993) suggests that employees are in fact the most important resource available to an organisation if organisational success is to be achieved. HRM enables an organisation to achieve goals through its workforce, whilst integrating human resource policies and business plans. Effective HRM should create a working environment in which all employees can be utilised to their full capacity and potential. It plays an important role in building the capabilities of a workforce and improving the general climate of employee attitudes (Boxall and Purcell, 2008) and aims to ensure commitment from individuals in order to achieve success for the organisation (Guest 1987). Academics have conflicting views on the meaning of HRM, some doubting its existence altogether. Fowler (1987), for example, believes that HRM is nothing more than a construct largely invented by academics and popularised by consultants (Fowler 1987 cited in Armstrong, 1999:586), while Woods (1999) claims that HRM is a paradox which has never really been mastered. Many academics are unable to make a clear distinction between HRM and personnel management (Armstrong, 1987; Sisson and Bach, 1989a; 1994b, 2000c; Legge, 1995; Torrington and Hall, 1998), while others are able to easily identify differences between them. The best way to conceptualise them, however, is as a continuum with personnel management at one end and HRM at the other (Wilson, 2001:47). Their differences and similarities can be found summarised in Table 1. 2.3 Hard and Soft HRM There are two approaches to HRM, each of which aims to provide an organisation with a competitive advantage. Storey (1992) and Guest (1987) were the first writers to make the distinction suggesting that the emphasis could either be on human or resources. In the UK, the two approaches are known as hard and soft HRM. The hard approach to HRM stresses the need for business orientated style, with an emphasis on productivity, efficiency in the utilisation of human resources and the achievement of business goals (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005:23). Nickson (2007) describes the hard approach as instrumental and economically rational (Nickson 2007:9), aiming to gain a competitive advantage whilst keeping labour costs to a minimum. Armstrong (1992) suggests that the hard approach to HRM treats employees like any other resource, for instance land or capital, to be used as managers see fit. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that employees will be treated badly. Marchington and Wilkinson (2002) suggest that if labour is in short supply or is central to the achievement of organisational goals, employees may be treated well. For the hard approach to be most effective, the staffing structure of an organisation must mirror its needs. It is essential that an organisation has the right number of staff in the right place at the right time (Wilson, 2005). The HRM practice of human resource planning is therefore crucial (Mullins, 1998). The alternative approach, soft HRM, stresses the human aspects of HRM (Price, 2007) focussing particularly on communication and motivation. Training and development programmes as well as commitment strategies are used with the aim of producing highly skilled employees in order to gain a competitive advantage (Bratton and Gold, 2003). A soft HRM approach puts staff at the centre of determining and realising strategic objectives and staff are led rather than managed to achieve organisational success. Storey (1992) states that Soft HRM sees employees as a valuable resource whose competencies, skills and attitudes are to be appropriately nurtured (Storey, 1992:28). The organisation and its workforce work together towards a competitive advantage, the organisation aiming to improve the quality of its staff in the hope that it will reap the rewards of their development. The soft approach is based on the premise that if employees feel they have been treated well, they will do all they can to achieve organisational goals. Although some authors, for example Sisson (1994), argue that organisations claiming to use a soft HRM approach may just be using the language to disguise what is actually a hard approach, similarities have been drawn between a soft HRM approach and personnel management, as organisations use employees to achieve a competitive advantage through developing their skills and loyalty. 2.4 The best practice or best fit approach to HRM There are two fundamental HR strategies which are used to ensure that the effects of HR practices are maximised. The best practice approach is generally agreed to comprise a list of tangible practices, with best practice HRM or bundles of practices having the greatest impact on performance (Pfeffer,1994a; 1998b; Huselid,1995; Wood, 1995; Patterson et al, 1998; Guest, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Best practice approach is based on the assumption that there is a set of best HRM practices and that adopting them will inevitably lead to superior organisational performance. (Armstrong 2000:135) The best fit model on the other hand is based on the principle that HR strategy will be more effective when appropriately integrated within the specific firm and environmental context (Boxall and Purcell, 2001) Writers suggest that there is a bundle of practices essential to the HR effective strategy of any organisation. These include practices discussed in more detail below, such as selection and recruitment, and training and development. Others may be more marginal as they do not necessarily have general application, for instance, family friendly policies, profit related pay and share ownership (Guest, 2001; Torrington et al, 1999a; 2002b; 2005c). The importance of deploying these practices in the correct manner must, however, be stressed. Simply employing them without the correct management may have a negative effect on an organisation and its retention of human resources. Critics of the best practice strategy argue that, as organisations vary in size, compete in different labour markets and have varying market strategies, what works for one organisation might not necessarily work as well for another. Organisations work systems are highly idiosyncratic (Becker et al, 1997 cited in Ingham, 2007:78) with optimum results only being achieved if practices are tailored carefully to each individual situation. Larger organisations, for instance, are more likely than smaller entities to adopt more sophisticated staffing and training procedures and to have a more structured workforce with more specialised jobs and defined career hierarchies. They inevitably require therefore more formalised HR practices to facilitate the management of larger numbers (Schuler and Jackson 1995). The concept of fit between business and HR policy is based on the assumption that if HRM is more contingent with the external environment and an organisations business strategy, it will lead to higher performance and competitive advantage (Legge cited in Storey, 2001). The best fit approach ensures that HR strategies are aligned with the culture and operational process of an organisation as well as the external environment. Armstrong suggests that this is one of the most important aims in a development programme (Armstrong 2000:132). 2.5 HRM practices Recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer 1992; Woods and Mcaulay 1989; Wagner 1991; Wheelhouse 1989) and training and development opportunities (Hogan 1992; Himestra 1990; Conrade et al., 1994) have been identified as having the biggest impact on staff turnover and are explored in detail in Chapter 4. Mullins (1995) recognises that the aim of any organisation must be to select the best available staff in the first place, train and develop them and to retain them for a reasonable period of time (Mullins 1995:183). Through the use of various intervention processes, for example, recruitment and selection and training and development, an organisation can influence turnover (Mullins, 1995 cited Cheng and Brown, 1998:138). This is consistent with literature which suggests that the use of high performance work practices, including recruitment and selection procedures and training, are associated with lower labour turnover, greater productivity and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995:635) However, before exploring recruitment and selection and training and development further it is important to mention some of the other key HRM practices used in the hospitality industry. HRM practices should cover five main areas: Staffing and recruitment; making sure that available jobs within an organisation are filled appropriately by staff with the required knowledge, experience, abilities and skills, whilst also deploying an effective retention programme. Rewards; carrying out regular appraisals and making sure that reward systems are in place as well as that staff benefit for achieving organisational goals. Employee development; ensuring that employees have the correct amount of training to enable them to do their job to the best of their abilities whilst enabling them to reach their full potential. Employee maintenance and job security; making sure that employees are working in a safe environment as well as offering support where redundancies are necessary. (Bratton and Gold, 1999; Mullins, 1998; Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas 2004) It is also suggested that HRM practices should include team working, employee involvement, liaisons with outside bodies (ACAS, HCTC and HCIMA), maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions (Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2004, Mullins, 1998). 2.6 Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is an important element of HRM in all organisations regardless of size, structure or sector (Marchington et al., 2005) and is critical to the long-term success of every hospitality business (Hayes et al., 2009). In terms of the hotel industry, Kelliher and Johnson (1987, 1997) have suggested that recruitment is, in fact, HRMs central function. Recruitment is the process of identifying candidates for current or future position vacancies. It is Those practices and activities carried out by the organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees (Barber, 1998:5 cited in Purcell et al., 2007:273; Hayes et al 2009:44). Selection is the process of choosing an individual for a current or future position vacancy (Hayes et al., 2009:44). Selection pares down the number of applicants while recruitment makes the paring down possible by producing the pool of candidates from whom new employees will be selected. However Recruitment and selection is generally viewed as an integrated function (Mullins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b) and is considered as such in this dissertation. The recruitment and selection process is the first point of contact for potential employees, who will tend to judge the organisation as a whole by the manner in which it is conducted, as well as the first stage in the HRM value chain. This leads some specialists to the view that: effective recruitment is likely to be the most critical human resource function for organisational success and survival (Taylor and Collins, 2000:304 cited in Boxall et al., 2007:273). Managers must address a number of questions before they begin the recruitment and selection process for it to have the desired effect, particularly whom to target, where, how (web, newspapers, job fairs) and when and what message to communicate (Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh and Stake, 2000 cited in Boxall et al, 2007:274). Literature suggests that recruitment and selection techniques have progressed from purely traditional techniques (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking) towards more strategic approaches (networking, internal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection) (Nankarvis and Debrah, 1995; Nankarvis, 1993b). There has also been an increase in recruiting through informal methods (word-of-mouth networks, recruit a relative or friend incentives, keep warm contacts with past employees and speculative applicants). Evidence suggests that such incentives strengthen job satisfaction for both recruiter and recruited (Purcell and Rowley, 2001:183), which in turn reduces staff turnover. There are a number of potential implications of poor selection decisions: Managers may have to waste time on disciplinary procedures or retraining poor performers as well as recruiting replacements for those leaving the job soon after commencing employment. These processes are both expensive and time-consuming, possibly diverting managers from other tasks. Poor recruitment and selection techniques do not only lead to under-qualified staff being employed. Some may be over-qualified and decide to leave soon after starting the job (Marchington et al., 2005). 2.7 Training and Development Training and Development is another key HRM practice which, if performed effectively, can reduce staff turnover within an organisation. Pepper (1984) defines training as the organized process concerned with the acquisition of capability or the maintenance of capability (Pepper, 1984:9-11 cited in Wilson, 1999:118). It is also viewed as a service provided by an organisation for its internal customers- its employees (Lovelock, 1989 cited in Chiang et al, 2005:101). Wexley and Latham (1991) introduce development into their definition suggesting that training and development is a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley and Latham, 1991:3). Development can relate to future requirements, such as preparation for promotion, whilst training generally relates to the here and now. For the purposes of this dissertation, however, the two terms are considered synonymous. Training strategies can include the employment of skilled trainers and use of training manuals or videos as support tools. Training can be hands-on or may take the form of classroom training. In some cases, the two strategies may be used together with feedback being provided through evaluation and appraisals (Chiang, 2005:101). Training may be either formal and take place outside the organisation or informal, on the job, where observation and instruction occurs on site (Jones, 2004:127). An effective training plan requires a good training site, a qualified trainer with clear objectives and methods as well as the necessary training tools and an evaluation strategy (Tanke, 1990). Paynes (2004) suggests that the aim of any training plan must be to ensure that staff have the required knowledge, skills, abilities and characteristics to confront new challenges 2.8 Conclusion HRM has been defined and the conflicting views have been discussed as have the different approaches and strategies used in order to provide an overview of the topic of HRM. An overview of the key HRM practices has also been provided and those most relevant to the hospitality industry have been split into key areas. Although selection and recruitment and training and development are suggested to have the greatest impact on employee turnover, the literature suggests that other key HRM practices, such as reward schemes, employee maintenance, liaisons with outside bodies, maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions, may also have a significant effect (Bratton and Gold 1999, Mullins 1998, Redman and Mathews 1998 and Lashley 1998). CHAPTER 3 STAFF TURNOVER 3.1 Introduction This Chapter explores the concept of staff turnover. Staff turnover is defined and a measure used to calculate turnover levels is discussed, along with its limitations. The characteristics of the Hospitality Industry are identified to show the extent to which they might make the industry more vulnerable to high staff turnover and turnover figures will be provided to support any assumptions that have been made. Some of the main reasons for high staff turnover in the industry will be considered looking in particular at some of the relevant push and pull factors. The cost and benefits of staff turnover will be weighed up to demonstrate the real need for the proper deployment of some of the HRM practices discussed in Chapter 2. 3.2 Definition of Staff Turnover The Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF) defines staff turnover as, the number of people leaving their job in a year as a percentage of the people employed in the industry (Hospitality Training Foundation, 1998 cited in Boella, 2005:178). Generally, turnover is measured over the financial year and is a measure of separations from an employing organisation. Organisations can use the following formula to calculate turnover rate in each department. Number of employees who left during the period X 100 Average number employed during the period Analysis of the turnover rate allows organisations not only to see whether they generally have a problem of high turnover but also to compare the rates of turnover between departments and to target workforce planning strategies accordingly. The calculation above is simple and is a broad indicator but it does have limitations. It does not reflect length of service of employees or whether or not the employer employs a few people at a high rate of pay or many people at a low rate of pay (Boella et al., 2000a; 2005b). The calculation also includes unavoidable turnover, for example, staff leaving due to illness, death or relocation and it may be beneficial to an organisation to create a measure which only measures avoidable turnover (Phillips, 2005). There are four types of turnover which occur within an organisation: voluntary; involuntary; functional and dysfunctional. The differences between them are summarised in Table 2. 3.3 Labour turnover in the Hospitality Industry Over the last 30 years the hospitality leisure and tourism sector has enjoyed a sustained period of growth and now accounts for nearly 5% of the UKs total economic output, employing 2 million people, 1/14 jobs in the UK. Labour turnover across the sector is the highest of all sectors of the economy, rising from 30% in 2005 to 31% in 2008 with recruitment and development of new staff costing an estimated  £414 million in 2008/2009 (Wisdom, 2009). A minority of employees in the hospitality industry are drawn from the primary labour market and as such are generally committed to the industry and sometimes to a particular sector within it. Riley (1996) estimates that 6% of jobs in the hospitality industry are managerial positions, 8% supervisory and 22% craft (Riley, 1996 cited in Kusluvan, 2003). The industry relies heavily, however, on the secondary labour market, which is made up of workers with skills which can be used across a number of industries, for example, secretaries, administrators and maintenance workers. Secondary labour markets do however approximate pretty closely in their characteristics to much of what happens in the industry in terms of the behaviour of employees and their treatment by employers (Goldsmith et al, 1997:16). Boella et al., (2005) suggests that these employees generally attach more importance to a geographical area rather than a career and choose to work in the industry purely to earn a living. The hospitality industry is particularly susceptible to high labour turnover because it is labour intensive and its pattern of staffing is characterised by high mobility, seasonal and part time work, with a high proportion of unskilled, young, part-time and casual staff. The proper use of HRM practices is therefore of great importance to the industry. 3.4 Reasons for staff turnover The greatest numbers of employees leave in the early days of employment, the period in which relationships have not yet developed. Mullins (1998) refers to such turnover as the induction crisis and suggests that it is particularly disruptive and costly. This early turnover is generally the result of improper selection systems, ineffective orientation and inadequate socialization process to adopt employees to the organisation (Phillips, 2005:185). As Torrington et al., (2005) point out, some departures from an organisation are unavoidable, for instance because of relocation, illness or the need to juggle work and family life. According to Lashley and Lincoln (2003), however, high labour turnover is usually due to avoidable causes, such as dissatisfaction with wages, the relationship with other staff or poor working hours, the majority of which can be addressed by effective management. Two broad categories influence staff turnover: work-related attitudes (push factors) and external environmental factors (pull factors) (McBey et al., 2001). Push factors are issues arising within an organisation, including uneven work patterns, poor pay, pe

Essay --

The Strategies of Victims Faulkner’s short story â€Å"Barn Burning,† captures the intensity and dynamics of a father and son relationship. The story is set in the Old South, where the dry farming grounds of the plantations are the only places that promise hardworking men a means to support their families. Though Faulkner presents these two man characters as vastly different, the father, Abner, and the son, Sarty, share a striking similarity. They both see themselves as victims and display the traits of a victim’s status. The father is a victim of social injustice and poverty. The son, on the other hand, is a victim of child abuse at the hand of his controlling and impulsive father. Faulkner sets the tone of the story by displaying the strategies of the victims and the complexity of their abuse through the narrator’s voice. In "Barn Burning," Faulkner portrays a boy, very nearly moral awareness, who ends up cut off from the modern world of which he is beginning to understand. The boy, Sarty begins to feel his alienation take root in connection with his father, who ought to be his moral compass and lead Sarty into this new modern society. On account of his father's criminal impulsiveness and a knack for starting fires, Sarty ends up, in the beginning of the story victimized and insulted by a kid, who he attacks back. His father has taught him to see others as the "enemy" (X.J. Kennedy). When Sarty’s father is charged with arson by Mr. Harris, he consequently labels him as "our enemy . . . hisn and ourn† (X.J. Kennedy pg. 147). The story closes with Sarty alone on at night on a hill viewing the stars. Faulkner depicts the Sarty’s loneliness, learned through his years of abuse and neglect. Yet on this hill, he has a moment of clarity and... ...nd a source and cause for his family’s poverty, and unhappiness. Abner is in denial that his circumstances are mostly a direct result of his decisions. Instead, he hates society and the educated man. Therefore, Abner directs his anger towards them, fighting to regain his pride and idea of justice. Through the support of the narrator’s tone, these two diversely different characters are brought together because they go through the same strategies and expressions of pain, unhappiness, injustice and abuse. Faulkner’s brilliant writing style and tone through the voice of the narrator creates a dynamic story that discusses several critical points, such as the struggles of victims and their strategies. Through two characters the author was able to describe the different reactions of victims, as well as, allow the audience to form and label the antagonist and protagonist.

The Role of the Church in the Renaissance Essay example -- Art History

The Christian Church was absolutely instrumental in the art of the Renaissance. It was the driving force behind every inspiration; without the Church, there would have been no art. The Church was the only institution powerful enough to be able to support the commissions of all of the artwork, and it was the only institution, in which people had enough faith and devotion to spend so much of their time and money creating pieces that—although beautiful—were not necessities. The role of religion in art actually began during the Byzantine era. During this time, all artwork was religious in nature, and most of it was done in a consistently similar style so that figures from the Bible could be easily recognized by everyone and so that people had a consistent view of religious matters. Art during this time was largely iconic, meant to inspire the awe of God in the viewer. Along with various versions of the crucifix, one of the most popular images of the Byzantine style wa s The Pantokrator, an image of Jesus Christ as shown from above. An example of one of these pieces was done in the twelfth century in the abbey church of Monreale in the city of Palermo. Jesus is a monumental figure that takes up much of the space across the apse of the Church. One of his hands forms a mudra as the other holds the scripture. His fully frontal and direct stance along with the glimmering gold background serves to strike awe and fear into the viewer. Clearly this piece was done with the intent to impress the value and mightiness of religion first and attention to the detail and technique of the art second. This emphasis on religion continued deep into the Renaissance, as the Church was one of the few organizations that could fund such massive un... ...udgment in the afterlife. Giotto’s Arena Chapel, Duccio’s Maestà  , and Masaccio’s Trinity are only a few examples of the Church’s overarching influence on Renaissance art. Without the Church, there would have been no art. It was the increasing popularity of the Church with new orders of monks in the 1200s that created a greater need for religious images, and with more production of art, the style began to change. Religion was such an integral part of Renaissance culture that it makes sense that it would be the focus of its creativity. Works Cited Adams, Laurie Schneider. Italian Renaissance Art, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001. Shearmann, John. Only Connect†¦ Art and the Spectator in the Italian Renaisssance, Washington, D.C.: Princeton University Press, 1992. Welch, Evelyn. Art and Society in Italy 1350-1500, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Moi…Yeah What About It?

At this darkness blocked my blurry vision, and a warm coppery taste was my only comfort, it had been my comfort for so long now. It was only a friend and I'm nearly dead. But when you get accused of going with your cousin you'd expect it of a friend. I was fourteen when it started, just over a year, you'd think I'd be all cried out, but I've learnt, gradually, save them, save them for the nights when you close your eyes and he's giving you what you want, and what you need†¦ love. Corny you might think, but the good things make you cry more than the bad. Every time he's not smoked bit too much skunk, sput, or what ever else he does, we'll cuddle and he whispers those three little words every girl longs to hear from a tall dark and handsome older guy. ‘I love you' But where's the truth in it. Most guys of sixteen think those three word can bed a girl. Well if they're vulnerable enough it's a definite thing. That's where trouble starts. Sex its just another word for hurt, blood, committing yourself and signing freedom and friends away. And all to some guy that thinks you want to spend the rest of your life with cos they popped your cherry. Its not reality, not to me and it shouldn't be to you. Loves a trap, an evil thing. It makes me feel sick, even just thinking about the hell I was put through in as shorter amount of time as a year. I thought I was being brave every time I was alone and my cloudy green eyes cried. I was surprised myself, as every moment we spent in each other's arms was a good time. I thought I'd never have to be alone. But now I know the sparkles all gone, and the stitches are here. He wasn't scared to show anyone the hate and anguish he felt inside for me, not even my mother, the first time, he hurt me was in front of both our families we sat down to a meal, in my house, a time we all thought was good. But I was dragged by my hair into the kitchen viewable from the dinning table. I knew what was coming I had seen his eyes when he had fought previously with lads, those eyes looked straight at me. I began to run to the side door, which was positioned at the side of his masculine, strong aftershave smelling body; my head was spinning as I was thrown back towards the sink. My head in the bowl with the dishes from the pervious course, and he kicked me right in the spine. My father was no longer around he had left us when my brother and I were just three years old. My brother and I thought the same; people said it was just telepathic, I screamed as the broken dishes cut into my made-up face. The phone rang. I heard it, I heard it through the screams and shouts, of my mother and the warnings of that bastards family. My mother ran to the phone hoping and praying it was someone with power that could help, she wasn't let down, my brother, he said he felt something and Wiz was driving him down to the house, my mother yelled down the phone hoping Wiz would hear, I'll never forget the words she said it was the first time I had ever heard her swear, I heard them words over and over in my confused and unsure head, â€Å"GET YOUR BLOODY FOOT DOWN and HURRY THE FUCK UP† I'd had enough my body couldn't take any more of his beating, I lay collapsed on the cold tiled floor coated in warm blood clotted in little ball, coughed out of my tooth missing mouth. I heard the screeching of tyres out front, as my brother ran in followed by four sets of other heavy footsteps. Screams and shouts were all I heard nothing I could make sense of. I was kicked one last time in my stomach before everything went dead. I was alone. I was alone in a bed, with tubes pumping all kinds of shit into me, I tried to move but my body refused, to leave me only lying still. I was there for a few days unable to move my bruised limbs, my brother and his mates came in every so often and comforted me, I didn't feel safe around guys though and refused to speak to them. The one person that made me feel safe was a younger lad I had met on a holiday that year, my mother had paid for him to fly from his home near Stoke to be with me for a few days. My brother had told me I had called out his name numerous occasions. I was unable to remember. I still thought about him though, when visiting times were over, I still loved him. I thought that nothing could change that, not even a hospital bed. My mother had told me a million times that he was bad news for me. I knew she was right but I always had the last word. I always blamed it on my dad leaving though; I made my mum feel bad because I never had a man to tell me how really men were. But really I should take it out on him he's the one who couldn't keep his pants up, well his ankles always were cold, my mum said anyway. I kind of understand now though why my mother never got with another, she could have had any one. She was the most beautiful woman who graced the earth. My brother always use to boost my confidence when I was younger saying I was like her, but no one ever could be as pretty, so perfect. I loved her more than anyone could love anything in the universe. But my love for her was too deep I was told, he told me. I believed him too. I was gullible and he was charming. I HATE HIM SO MUCH. He changed my mother's perspective in my live; my whole world, and left me behind. My life was complicated, it always had been. No person, how sophisticated, how intelligent could understand my head, the way I would think. I used to write stories and draw strange looking picture, all the teachers thought I was ill in the head from the first day I walked through the school gates Primary and High. They can all drop dead just as every other down looking snob in this world can. They don't understand anything, half of them don't even have kids of their own, and how can they stand in front of a teenager and tell them how they should treat people with respect when they have no respect for us. Teachers always said I had a foul mouth†¦ and. So have 70% of the rest of the pupils in this school. That old line they spoon feed you every time their on their periods are just in a bad mood, â€Å"Miss Potts' you have the most dramatic and over active imagination I have ever had enter this room, now leave† That's meant to be an education don't be daft. I admit to the charges with my hands up but I've had a bad life, as have others but I took the easy way out and became a little bitch, smoking, drinking etc. It was just what school life has lead me into. I think about life doing things right sometimes but that's not me it isn't possible for me now. Things when I got out of hospital weren't any different between him and me; I'll call him that because his name sends shivers and spikes down my spine. I carried on seeing him, yeah I know I was stupid, but he told me he'd change just to spend a few moments of his life with me in his arms. My family didn't find out for a while, but when my brother caught me and him upstairs in my room he disowned me, I tried to cover up what we were doing but I think clothes all up the stairs were a clear give away. No one was meant to come home, my mother in London and my brother meant to be at a friends', what's the chances ay? Low High well shit happens doesn't it? I convinced my brother it was the best thing to do keeping it a secret from my mother as she was suffering from severe depression, give you a guess who it all started with. Lol. Obvious don't you think? We didn't talk my brother and I until I assured him it was all over. He believed me. I had tried to brake it off with him but his dark eyes seduced my mind hypnotising me, they told a story of that day when I nearly died. My life's never been perfect, and never will be now. I had dreams, ambitions. I was going to be an artist, I wanted people to know who I was and what I had been through but how do you tell the story, of getting beat up by a demon, that lived around the corner from your humble warm loving home. I had ideas but I'd have to find him again to make my work publishable, to kill me obviously. No artist I've ever heard of got famous when they were alive so I'd need some help wouldn't I? After I told my brother I had stopped seeing him, it was around three months until we finish properly, I had been in hospital again, slipped a disk in my back this time, it happened over three days, it started over a cig, how sad, my best mate of a few years wouldn't spare her last fag for him and I got bollocked for it. I tried to run but I was never a sprinter, my legs weren't long enough, he caught up to me within a few moments of me dropping my bags out side the schools gates, he dragged me to the floor by my long brown ponytail, I lay there frozen scared to move as his three best mate screamed at him to leave me alone because I was a cheap tart after a shag. Later that night though he found me, came down to another of my mates looking for a shag off of me. Yeah you know the story, I did it, a shags a shag as my mates brother told me. The next time he threw a paddy was the next night; guess what this was over as well, a lil bit of lippy, apparently I looked like a whore, and his mates would find it as an offer. It was a repeat performance of the previous day although a man dressed in a dark suit came to my rescue; he told me he was always there for me if I ever needed him. I didn't even know the guy, it was the first time I'd seen him but I thought I could come to some kind of arrangement with him. He was sexy and I was feeling low and on the rebound. The next time, I find it hard to talk about It was thought I would never be able to have kids, that broke my heart, I really wanted kids in the future lil boy and girl Cona and Carmel. I thought that they were cute names for kids and different for when they grew up. My story with him ended when a couple of weeks I found my self sat in a doctors surgery with a urine sample on the desk, and a pregnancy test boxed up lay next to it, along with that protein tester thing. I'd put on weight and me and the doctor both knew exactly what was going on. I sobbed as I told the doctor my life story; he was touched and offered me a tissue over the long wooden desk I leant on with one hand on my stomach. I quit my sobbing and stood up to leave. No appointments were made, no nothings were said.